Contents

Abstract

Due to characteristics including size, isolation, and limitations of land-based resources, islands and island societies frequently face significant development and sustainability challenges. Islands have significant advantages too. Large economic and governance structures, rarely feasible on islands, can produce inflexible systems with poor response time to sudden change or to trends. In contrast, kinship-based communities prevalent on many islands can rapidly make and implement decisions based on interpersonal trust--which, in turn, can have its own disadvantages. As well, if implemented properly, unique island heritage can be used to generate livelihoods without ruining that heritage.

Despite the challenges, islands therefore often have livelihood opportunities unavailable elsewhere. Past mistakes should be learned to avoid recurrence. For example, Nauru enjoyed phosphate earnings from their independence yet, egged on by others also benefiting from the phosphate, the country planned poorly for a post-phosphate future. In contrast, apparent disadvantages can be turned into advantages.

Daily and seasonal difficulties, such as a limited freshwater supply threatened by waste and salinisation, should be tackled as opportunities, such as to develop economically viable and small-scale desalinisation processes.

Some opportunities are being exploited, from vehicles running on coconut oil on Vanuatu to marketing bottled water from St Vincent and the Grenadines. Creativity or circumstances have yielded others, such as Tristan da Cunha's stamps and Tuvalu's .tv top-level internet domain name, although not all such endeavours have been managed appropriately. Some island schemes raise ethical questions, for instance selling university certificates, promoting offshore banking with the potential for money laundering, and accepting overseas aid in exchange for votes in international fora. Contradictions are exposed in establishing eco-tourism on low-lying islands reached mainly by long jet flights.

In proposing, debating, developing, testing, and fully implementing livelihoods which might be unique to small islands, trade-offs, ethical issues, ironies, risks, and opportunities emerge. Determining which unique island livelihoods might promote sustainability and which would be more harmful than helpful requires careful analysis while considering how to integrate such livelihoods with opportunities not unique to small islands.

Natural heritage attraction for tourists in (where else?) Kangaroo Island, Australia.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2017.)

Introduction

Due to characteristics including size, isolation, and limitations of land-based resources, islands and island societies frequently face significant development and sustainability challenges. Islands have significant advantages too. Large economic and governance structures, rarely feasible on islands, can produce inflexible systems with poor response time to sudden change or to trends.

Definitions

Island

A set definition for terms such as "small", "island", "small island", or "isolated" does not exist in a geographical context. Many authors (e.g., Briguglio et al., 1996; Crowards, 2002; King, 1993; Ratter and Sandner, 1996; Streeten, 1993) have discussed definitions of these terms using criteria such as population size; land area; arable land area; gross national product; environmental influence, for example defining an island to be a landmass which does not create its own climate or ecology due to its volume; and characteristics of social geography, such as the presence of a unique people or culture. Royle (2001) provides a particularly insightful discussion about the practical problems encountered when defining an "island" according to the dictionary.

Scoglietto, Italy: Island or rock?
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2003.)

One suggestion would be to consider islands and isolated geographies as lacking an adequate land transportation network connected to a larger land mass. Land transportation networks for products and people tend to be cheaper than air and quicker than water transportation networks while wire-based communication and energy lifelines are often easier to construct and maintain across land. For sustainability, such lifelines should be minimised along with the need for transport of products. The lack of a land transportation unit thus implies an island or isolated geography as a self-contained human system or a self-contained society. This approach to the definition may be appealing, but then encounters the quagmire of defining the key phrases "adequate", "larger land mass", and "self-contained". After all, no geographic location on the planet is unaffected by events and actions elsewhere.

Two further provisos emerge. First, the development oftransportation routes--such as bridges, tunnels, and causeways, but potentially also including frequent air or boat connections--might create ambiguities and "pseudo-islands". Characteristics might lie in the transition zone between those of islands and those of non-islands. Holyhead, Prince Edward Island, Skye, and Singapore have "fixed links" with the "mainland". In many cases, fears are expressed regarding the loss of island characteristics due to the fixed link, while others suggest that the livelihoods-boosting fixed link will preserve island life, livelihoods, and culture (Baldacchino, 2007). An interesting case is Orkney where many outlying islands such as Burray and South Ronaldsay, are connected to the "Mainland", the main island of Orkney, by causeways with a road. Have the outlying islands lost any of their "islandness" due to the connection with the island Mainland? Has the Mainland been affected? Could contrasts be made with Shetland where few outlying islands have land connections to the Mainland?

Canvey Island, U.K. on the Thames Estuary downstream from London.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 1999.)

Another interesting U.K. example is Canvey Island on the Thames Estuary downstream from London. Most of Canvey Island, with a population of over 36,000, is below the mean high water mark, so the island is surrounded by a concrete wall. Two roads connect the island to the mainland, but they both pass through the same intersection (roundabout) just before going off-island. The sense of island community and island spirit are strong, making it difficult to claim that the fixed link makes Canvey a non-island.

The second proviso is that some islands belong to more than one state, such as Haiti and the Dominican Republic forming Hispaniola and New Guinea split between the country of Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian region (for the moment) of Irian Jaya. Irrespective of the land borders between states, Hispaniola and New Guinea could easily be considered islands. Whether or not "an adequate land transportation network" across each international border exists may be irrelevant since it would not be "connecting with a larger land mass".

Framework

Based on examples, a framework has been adopted which divides livelihood activities into:

• Unique products based on location.


• Unique products based on innovation.


• Services.

Unique products based on location

Human products

Implementation	Island culture is highly valued as a product, including arts, crafts, music, musical instruments, and representations of unique island culture such as the Easter Island statues.
Uniqueness	Location specific, but not unique to islands.
Ethics	As long the culture and people making the products are not over-exploited or denigrated, and are not impacted by the ethical issues discussed under "natural products", human and cultural products present few ethical concerns.

Beach craft on St. Lucia. An island livelihood, a livelihood on an island, or artistic recreation?
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 1998.)

National icons, such as stamps, coins, medals, and licence plates

Implementation	Several islands use this livelihood, for instance the British Overseas Territories. Many island states use another country’s currency, such as Nauru using the Australian dollar, or have pooled currency with other island states, such as the East Caribbean dollar. Stamps would be easier to produce and market than other icons and many islands could better tap into this form of income generation. The interest in and value of icons could be enhanced by creating royalty, if it does not already exist, and developing the status and profile of the new royal family.
Uniqueness	This livelihood is not unique to islands, as any jurisdiction could implement it. Income from stamps, for example, is gained by the Vatican City and the United Nations while stamps served political purposes for areas including Nagaland and Tibet.
Ethics	Few significant concerns emerge from this livelihood, even if icons are released which are fake (e.g. Gough Island coins or licence plates) or issued for fictional jurisdictions (e.g. medals for Atlantis submarine commanders). Investigating the legitimacy of icons is straightforward for the purchaser. Meanwhile, fake, forged, or fictional icons have their own status amongst collectors, including philatelists, numismatists, and children enjoying "fun money" or tricycle licence plates. Ethical concerns could emerge in spin-offs from this livelihood, such as producing forged currency intending to masquerade as real money.

Faroes icons: worth more than face value? The colours have been altered from the original.

Natural products

Implementation	Examples: Bottled water from St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Honey from Colonsay, Scotland. Lavender products from Prince Edward County, Ontario. In the same way that icons are considered to be of interest, other island products are considered to be interest and generate income from renewable resources. Examples other than bottled water which might be considered to taste better or to have healing properties would be bottled air (similar marketing to bottled water), soap, plants, plant products, animals, and animal products other than honey.
Uniqueness	Location specific, but not unique to islands.
Ethics	As long as resources are not over-exploited and are not impacted by the issues discussed in the next sentences, products such as bottled water and soap would present few ethical concerns. Selling plants and animals and their derivatives could run into significant ethical concerns, as covered by international treaties. Selling bottled air and similar products might be considered unethical, but as long as the product benefits are not presented dishonestly, little inherently wrong emerges.

Lavender products from Prince Edward County, Ontario
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2017.)

Official documents such as passports, university degrees, police records, or certificates for births, marriages, or divorces along with titles such as "Lord" or "Professor". As well, some people might be interested in purchasing entry to and the right of residency in a country.

Implementation	Such ventures would be low-cost but potentially high earners.
Uniqueness	Any country could gain income from this livelihood, but the smaller and more isolated states such as islands might be better placed to make it succeed.
Ethics	Significant fundamental ethical concerns arise, such livelihoods are illegal under many national and international laws, and conflict with other countries might result, such as issuing official documents or residency to criminals or sending university degrees to anyone who buys one. Regarding official documents, island citizens would be harmed by loss of credibility and difficulty in getting their documents accepted internationally. Due to the violation of basic ethics, but also noting that such activities would probably yield more trouble than gain, this livelihood option would likely not be viable and would be strongly recommended to avoid.

Unique products based on innovation

Energy

Implementation	Examples: Irish and British islands have pioneered development and testing of renewable energy supplies, including tidal and wind power, with mixed results. Other possibilities include passive solar, active solar, and biomass energy supplies. Coconut-oil fuelled vehicles is a new, developing industry. Fuels based on oil from vegetation plentiful on islands should also be considered for electricity generation, aircraft, and shipping. Energy constraints are a major concern for islands, especially as it adds to the cost of transporting goods and people. Developing, implementing, testing, and improving small-scale alternative energy sources would not only reduce the cost of living on islands and remove a strong inhibitor to development, but would also yield products which could be sold elsewhere for further income.
Uniqueness	This livelihood would not need to be developed on islands, but islands have the strongest impetus to pursue such products.
Ethics	No significant ethical concerns result, although care must be taken that removing the energy constraint on island development would not lead to rapid, inappropriate development.

Solar energy over the western isles of Ireland.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 1997.)

Transportation

Implementation	Transport access for people and goods is often a major concern for islands. Developing, implementing, testing, and improving transport access solutions, from tunnelling and bridge design and technology to more efficient aircraft and watercraft, would not only reduce the cost of living on islands and remove a strong inhibitor to development, but would also yield products which could be sold elsewhere for further income.
Uniqueness	This livelihood would not need to be developed on islands, but islands have the strongest impetus to pursue such products.
Ethics	No significant ethical concerns result, although care must be taken that removing the transport constraint on island access would not lead to rapid, inappropriate development or other change.

Inter-island travel on Shetland: the Islander aircraft.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 1996.)

Water resources

Implementation	Water resources are often a major concern for islands, but islands are surrounded by water. Developing, implementing, testing, and improving small-scale water treatment systems would not only reduce the cost of living on islands and remove a strong inhibitor to development, but would also yield products which could be sold elsewhere for further income. Such systems would primarily be focused on desalination, for islands surrounded by the sea, but could also include purification for islands surrounded by freshwater and for desalinated water. The objective is to provide drinking water on a small scale from the plentiful resource of water surrounding an island, thereby passing the difficulties encountered when tapping groundwater and surface water sources.
Uniqueness	This livelihood would not need to be developed on islands, but islands have the strongest impetus to pursue such products.
Ethics	No significant ethical concerns result, although care must be taken that removing the water constraint on island development would not lead to rapid, inappropriate development.

Part of the aqueduct system supplying parts of Tenerife with fresh water.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2004.)

Services

These service markets can be highly competitive, but such activities could presumably be administered by expert third parties anywhere in the world while paying the island a commission on all revenues generated.

Company registrations

Implementation	For a fee, companies are registered in the island country, receiving a postal address, mail forwarding, and a bank account.
Uniqueness	Any country could gain income from this livelihood, but the smaller and more isolated states such as islands might be better placed to make it succeed.
Ethics	In principle, this livelihood would provide a useful service while generating income. In practice, it would be used for mainly tax evasion, money laundering, fraud, consumer exploitation, and businesses illegal elsewhere. Any system of investigating applicants would be beyond the resources of most island states and would be open to abuse. Due to the violation of basic ethics, but also noting that such activities would probably yield more trouble than gain, this livelihood option would likely not be viable and would be strongly recommended to avoid.

Conferences

Implementation	Examples: Using Twillingate, Newfoundland as a conference centre for "Big Lessons from Small Places" back-to-back with "An Overview of Canadian Rural Research" in October 2005. ISISA runs Islands of the World conferences in island locations. Island Dynamics runs creative conferences in island locations. SICRI runs Small Island Cultures conferences in island locations.
Uniqueness	Location specific, but not unique to islands.
Ethics	In principle, this livelihood can work and has worked. In practice, many issues arise, as listed in the next section, which suggest that tourism is often not a viable livelihood or, at minimum, it must be implemented with immense case.

Issues Arising

Some aspects, specific examples, and further interpretation of the island livelihoods discussed above and more are detailed and expanded in:

Conclusions

The examples of island livelihoods found and the issues raised in the discussion suggest that no island livelihoods could yet be described as being unique to islands. Several are location-specific and several are enhanced by island characteristics, but none result specifically from island environments. Part of this result is the nature of livelihoods. People are able to adapt to their location, environment, and resources and to make it liveable--from small phosphate rocks such as Nauru to vast hot deserts such as the Sahara to places with no sunlight in winter such as above the arctic circle. For island livelihoods, islanders are able to overcome the challenges presented by their environment whilst using island advantages, just as non-islanders are able to overcome the challenges presented by their environment whilst using the advantages.

Prisons provide a useful illustration. Island characteristics include remoteness and being surrounded by water, which are formidable barriers to people not used to them--although water becomes a swift and easy transportation route for people used to that. These characteristics frequently result in islands being used as prisons. Non-island geographic locations yield similar results, such as mountain valleys and desert oases. Where the characteristics of remoteness and a barrier do not exist geographically, human beings have created them: building walls and security systems to create a barrier which also serves to create remoteness. The island characteristics have enhanced prisons, but prisons are not unique to islands. Other locations serve equally well, and people adapt their environments to create the characteristics that they need. Similarly, the same island characteristics which might make islands attractive for waste disposal has led the Australian outback and Nevada mountains to be suggested for nuclear waste storage.

In any case, the island barriers are overcome by islanders who adapt to their environment and exploit it for livelihoods. Therefore, any perceived barriers which lead to livelihoods function only within specific contexts.

An additional observation is the dominance of service-oriented livelihoods in the list provided. Do island characteristics generally promote service industries rather than products? Or do many more product examples exist which have not been listed? One issue is that any environment, island or non-island, is so rich that it will inevitably provide numerous, desirable products which might be considered unique. Is Colonsay honey any more exclusive or individual than small farms producing their own honey in New England? Apart from to nissologists, would island medals or licence plates have more inherent value simply because they come from an island? Rarity and the challenge of acquiring these products add value, but small, isolated non-island jurisdictions have similar characteristics--unless the argument would be that small, isolated jurisdictions are islands. In that case, the relative rarity and the challenge of acquiring island products could be an inherently island characteristic which would support product-based livelihoods.

Many of the suggested island livelihoods yield significant ethical concerns. The remoteness of islands and their physical separation from land makes it easier in some cases to evade international pressure, prominence, or interest in pursuing entrepreneurs who might have crossed ethical boundaries. Suggestions have also been made that islanders might be more trusting, needy, or easier to manipulate for less ethical livelihoods. Although specific island cases exist where these comments are accurate, many specific non-island cases also exist where these comments are accurate. Highlighting "remoteness from ethics" or "naivety" as inevitable island characteristics leading to specific livelihoods is patronising and hypocritical. As with any location and any group of people, temptations exist to permit exploitation for short-term economic gain, including lower ethical standards. Islanders and non-islanders must be equally careful to ensure that livelihoods are ethical, sustainable, and achievable.

Overall, it appears as if island characteristics do not create unique livelihoods but could be used to put island communities in a strong position to develop, and to promote, certain livelihoods. Opportunities should be grasped. Promoting a product or service as a special island, or location-specific, product or service would help such opportunities yield their full potential. The balance is to try to avoid false branding or false claims. Care should be taken to ensure that high ethical standards are achieved and that the long-term consequences of adopting certain livelihoods are understood and desired.

Two livelihoods near Apia, Samoa: industry and tourism. When a hotel is sited in front of petrochemical storage, what are the ethics and ironies?
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2004.)

References

Baldacchino, G. (ed.) 2007. Bridging Islands: The Impact of Fixed Links. Acorn Press, Charlottetown, Canada.

Bibby, A. 1995. Teleworking: Thirteen Journeys to the Future of Work. Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal and London, U.K.

Briguglio, L., R. Butler, D. Harrison, and W.L. Filho. 1996. Sustainable Tourism in Islands and Small States: Case Studies. Pinter, London/New York.

Chambers, R. 1995. "Poverty and Livelihoods: Whose Reality counts?". Environment & Urbanization, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 173-204.

Chambers, R. and G.R. Conway. 1992, although dated December 1991. Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century, Discussion Paper 296, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, University of Sussex.

Crowards, T. 2002. "Defining the Category of 'Small' States". Journal of International Development, vol. 14, issue 2 (March), pp. 143-179.

King, R. 1993. "The Geographical Fascination of Islands", pp. 13-37 in D.G. Lockhart, D. Drakakis-Smith, and J. Schembri (eds.)., 1993, The Development Process in Small Island States, Routledge, London/New York.

Lewis, J. 1999. Development in Disaster-prone Places: Studies of Vulnerability. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, U.K.

Moser, C., A. Norton, T. Conway, C. Ferguson, and P. Vizard. 2001. To Claim Our Rights: Livelihood Security, Human Rights and Sustainable Development. Overseas Development Institute, London, U.K.

Orams, M.B. 2002. "Humpback Whales in Tonga: An Economic Resource for Tourism". Coastal Management, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 361-380.

Ratter, B.M.W. and G. Sandner. 1996. "Small Islands, Large Questions: Introduction to Special Issue". Geographische Zeitschrift, vol. 84, issue 2, pp. 63-66.

Royle, S.A. 2001. A Geography of Islands: Small Island Insularity. Routledge, London, U.K.

Streeten, P. 1993. "The Special Problems of Small Countries". World Development, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 197-202.

Wells, H.G. 1896. The Island of Dr. Moreau. Republished 1988, Penguin, New York, U.S.A.

Kapiti Island, New Zealand.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2004.)

The material on the Island Vulnerability website is provided as only an information source. Neither definitive advice nor recommendations are implied. Each person or organisation accessing the website is responsible for making their own assessment of the topics discussed and are strongly advised to verify all information. No liability will be accepted for loss or damage incurred as a result of using the material on this website. The appearance of external links on this website does not constitute endorsement of the organisations, information, products, or services contained on that external website.