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Island Vulnerability
http://www.islandvulnerability.org/pacific.html

Pacific


Island Vulnerability explores the challenges which isolated geographies face when dealing with risk and disasters by examining the processes which create, maintain, and could be used to reduce their vulnerability. This page provides information on the Pacific:

This page provides information specifically related to vulnerability (including risk, disasters, and sustainability), rather than general information such as travel details, country profiles, government websites, or history. The information provided is not intended to be comprehensive, but is indicative of the vulnerabilities which islands experience and how sustainable solutions might be developed and implemented. The publications listed reflect those in the library of Island Vulnerability.


Some Pacific Region Websites

  • Pacific Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
    "The water sector under the SOPAC's Community Lifelines Programme (CLP), has a structure consisting of Resources Management, Asset Management and Governance. For the water sector these translate into water resources management (CLP1), which includes rainwater, surface water and groundwater resources assessment, development, management and protection, with a particular emphasis on water resources management in climatic extremes...Sanitation and drinking water services are addressed by the Asset Management component (CLP2) and include drinking-water supply and wastewater disposal asset management...The Governance component (CLP3) pulls together a number of different areas which together attribute to better institutional arrangements in the water sector. These include national level policies, plans and strategies; institutional instruments such as legislation and institutional strengthening; multi-stakeholder national water partnerships; IWRM and catchment level management; community level water governance; awareness raising and education initiatives; and advocacy for community participation and gender."

  • PaCIS
    Pacific Climate Information System
    "The Pacific Climate Information System (PaCIS) provides a programmatic framework to bring together ongoing and future climate observations, operational forecasting services and climate projections, research, assessment, data management, outreach, and education - an integrated system of climate services - to address the needs of the Pacific Islands. It provides a forum for sharing the expertise, experience, and perspective needed to guide integrated program planning and product development."

  • PDN
    Pacific Disaster Net
    "A Web Portal and Database System - Virtual Centre of Excellence - for Disaster Risk Management in the Pacific Region. The portal is designed to be the largest and most comprehensive information resource in relation to Disaster Risk Management for the Pacific Island Countries."

  • Pacific Islands Climate
    "This website is a gateway to a broad range of information related to climate in the Pacific Islands. It includes summaries of programs, projects, and activities, as well as products and services. Formed through the collaboration of and contributions from a family of agencies, institutions, and organizations, it is intended to serve as a shared resource for research scientists, service providers, and decision-makers."

  • PIANGO
    Pacific Islands Association of Non-Government Organisations
    "PIANGO exists to enable the Pacific extended family of NGOs to more effectively promote and advance the interest and well being of their people. More specifically, PIANGO is a network of Pacific NGOs, existing to facilitate communication; provide a common voice at regional and international forums; and assist NGOs to strengthen and develop Pacific identities, unity, cultures and forms of social action, as well as to improve the well being of the communities they serve.
    PIANGO's goals are to:

    1. Facilitate active networking among NGO's at all levels throughout the region.

    2. Promote and enable access to, sharing and dissemination of information, ideas, experience and resources (including human resources) among NGOs throughout the region.

    3. Enable NGOs to better understand, fulfil and develop their roles and functions, and strengthen their organisation and program capacities.

    4. Assist in identifying, monitoring and analysing the needs of people in the Pacific, and ways of increasing the role of the people of the Pacific in their own development, with emphasis on Pacific women and youth.

    5. Provide a means for a collective voice and action on issues of concern to NGOs and the people they serve.

    6. Play an active role in promoting a regional Pacific identity and Pacific ways of thinking and responding.

    7. Cooperate with other networks and organisations within or beyond the region which have similar aims."

  • PIFS
    Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat
    "To work in support of Forum Member governments to enhance the economic and social well-being of the people of the South Pacific by fostering cooperation between governments and between international agencies, and by representing the interests of Forum members in ways agreed by the Forum."

  • PIPD
    Pacific Islands Development Program (East-West Center)
    "The Pacific Islands Development Program (PIDP) conducts a broad range of activities to enhance the quality of life in the Pacific islands. The founding mission of PIDP, established in 1980, is to assist Pacific islands Leaders in advancing their collective efforts to achieve and sustain equitable social and economic development consistent with the goals of the Pacific islands region's people...PIDP's role as a regional organization has expanded to include five major activity areas:

    • Secretariat of the Pacific Islands Conference of Leaders

    • Secretariat for the United States/Pacific Island Nations Joint Commercial Commission.

    • Research & Dialogue

    • Education & Training

    • Pacific Islands News."

    For the latter, see their Pacific Islands Report.
  • Te Puna Web Directory
    National Library of New Zealand's Directory to New Zealand and Pacific Island Websites
    "To provide a subject gateway to selected New Zealand and Pacific Island Internet information resources that help libraries, their users, and all New Zealanders meet their professional, educational, cultural and personal information needs."

  • SOPAC
    Secretariat of the Pacific Community Applied Geoscience Commission
    "Overall Vision: Natural resources, principally non-living resources, developed in a sustainable manner and vulnerability reduced for the people of the Pacific."
    See their Environmental Vulnerability Index:

  • SOPAC's Headquarters.

    SOPAC's Headquarters.
    (Copyright Ilan Kelman 2005.)

  • SPC
    Secretariat of the Pacific Community
    "We strive to develop the technical, professional, scientific, research, planning and management capability of Pacific Islands people to enable them to make informed decisions about their future development and well-being."

  • SPREP
    Pacific Regional Environment Programme
    "To promote cooperation in the South Pacific region and to provide assistance in order to protect and improve its environment and to ensure sustainable development for present and future generations."

  • SPREP's Headquarters.

    SPREP's Headquarters.
    (Copyright Ilan Kelman 2004.)


Some Pacific Region References


Cook Islands Cook Islands' Flag

Some Events:

  • 1 January 1987 Cyclone Sally hits with the island of Rarotonga worst affected.

  • 14-15 February 1990 Tropical Cyclone Peni hits the southern group of Cook Islands affecting Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, Mauke, and Rakahanga.

  • 7 November 1997 Tropical Cyclone Martin hits 3 atolls in the Northern Cook Islands Group, Pukapuka, Rakahanga and Manihiki leaving 19 dead and considerable infrastructure and crop damage.

Some Resources:


Federated States of Micronesia Federated States of Micronesia's Flag

Some Resources:


Kiribati Kiribati's Flag

Some Resources:
  • Baptiste-Brown, S. 2012. When A People Risk Losing Their Country to the Effects of Climate Change: The Social Implication of International Climate Change Displacement for Kiribati. Master of International Development and Management dissertation at Lund University, Sweden full text (701 kb in pdf).

    This research's foundation is the current state of affairs in Kiribati in relation to the effects of climate change and how the nation will face the future. The paper examines how different actors in Kiribati are helping the country prepare for possible climate change displacement in the future, from the viewpoint of said actors. Interview data, supplemented by observational data from time spent in the field are the primary sources of data presented. The research uncovers the importance of education, skills training, and language in the advancement of employability in a new country context. The data attests to the fact that these areas that frame social life are currently functioning well or have encouraging plans in place. Less optimistically, the data details the wanting nature of the areas of institutional coordination and public communication. The paper closes with a set of recommendations based on the gaps exposed in the findings.

  • Jones, P. and J.P. Lea. 2007. "What Has Happened to Urban Reform in the Island Pacific? Some Lessons from Kiribati and Samoa". Pacific Affairs, vol. 80, no. 3, pp. 473-491.

  • Lay, T. and E.A. Okal. 1983. "The Gilbert Islands (Republic of Kiribati) Earthquake swarm of 1981-1983". Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, vol. 33, pp. 284-303.

  • Moglia, M., P. Perez, and S. Burn. 2007. "Water troubles in a Pacific atoll town". Water Policy, vol. 10, pp. 613-637.

  • Muirhead, K. and R.D. Adams. 1986. "Earthquakes in the 'Aseismic' Regions of the Western Pacific". Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 13, no 3, pp. 169-172.

  • Olowu, D. 2007. "Environmental Governance Challenges in Kiribati: An Agenda for Legal and Policy Responses", Law, Environment and Development Journal, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 259-269.

  • Storey, D. and S. Hunter. 2010. "Kiribati: an environmental 'perfect storm'". Australian Geographer, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 167-181.

  • Thomas, F.R. 2001. "Remodeling Marine Tenure on the Atolls: A Case Study from Western Kiribati, Micronesia". Human Ecology, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 399-423.

  • Thomas, F.R. 2003. "Kiribati: 'Some Aspects of Human Ecology,' Forty Years Later". Atoll Research Bulletin, no. 501.

  • Thomas, F.R. 2009. "Historical Ecology in Kiribati: Linking Past with Present". Pacific Science, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 567-600.

  • Tiaeke, N. with contributions from Taskforce members. 2002. Kiribati National Report To The World Summit On Sustainable Development. Government of Kiribati, Tarawa, Kiribati.

  • Troost, J.M. 2004. The Sex Lives of Cannibals. Transworld Publishers, London, U.K.

  • Webb, A. 2006 (March). Technical Report Analysis of Coastal Change and Erosion – Tebunginako Village, Abaiang, Kiribati. EU EDF 8/9 – SOPAC Project Report 53: Reducing Vulnerability of Pacific ACP States, SOPAC, Suva, Fiji.

Traditional home in North Tarawa and the bridge to South Tarawa.

Traditional home in North Tarawa and the bridge to South Tarawa.
(Copyright Sara Baptiste-Brown 2012.)


Marshall Islands Marshall Islands' Flag

Some Resources:

The shoreline of the Marshall Islands.

Watching the sea on the Marshall Islands.
(Copyright Peter Rudiak-Gould 2007.)


Nauru Nauru's Flag

Some Resources:
  • Carter, K., T.S. Soakai, R. Taylor, I. Gadabu, C. Rao, K. Thoma, and A.D. Lopez. 2011. "Mortality Trends and the Epidemiological Transition in Nauru". Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 10-23.

  • Gowdy, J.M. and C.N. McDaniel. 1999. "The Physical Destruction of Nauru: An Example of Weak Sustainability". Land Economics, vol. 75, no. 2, pp. 333-338.

  • Hiscock, S. 2002. "Nauru and the Pacific Solution". The Courier ACP-EU, January-February, pp. 21-22.

  • Manner, H.I., R.R. Thaman, and D.C. Hassall. 1984. "Phosphate Mining Induced Vegetation Changes on Nauru Island". Ecology, vol. 65, no. 5, pp. 1454-1465.

  • Tabucanon, G.M. and B. Opeskin. 2011. "The Resettlement of Nauruans in Australia". The Journal of Pacific History, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 337-356.

  • Taylor, R. and K. Thoma. 1985. "Mortality Patterns in the Modernized Pacific Island Nation of Nauru". American Journal of Public Health, vol. 75, no. 2, pp. 149-155.

The coastline of Nauru

Nauru (photo copyright James Lewis, 1976).


Philippines Philippines' Flag

Mount Mayon

Mount Mayon.
(Copyright JC Gaillard 2005.)

Some Resources:

Infanta, Quezon showing damage following the late-2004 typhoon disaster

Infanta, Quezon showing damage following the late-2004 typhoon disaster.
(Copyright JC Gaillard 2004.)


Samoa Samoa's Flag

Some Events:

  • 4-6 January 2004 Cyclone Heta passes by Samoa causing over US$25 million of damage.

  • 29 September 2009 An earthquake-induced tsunami devastates coastal areas, killing dozens.

Some Resources:
  • Blake, B. 1993. "Housing and cyclones: Reducing vulnerability of Samoan fales", AODRO Newsletter, (Australian Overseas Disaster Response Organisation), vol. 11, no. 1 (March), p. 3-7, full text (825 kb in PDF)

  • Britton, N.R. 1986. Article on Tropical Cyclones Martin (Fiji) and Namu (Samoa), AODRO Newsletter, (Australian Overseas Disaster Response Organisation), vol. 4, no. 2 (June), p. 2-8, full text (1,035 kb in PDF)

  • Carter, R. 1990. Probability and Recurrence of Tropical Cyclones in Western Samoa. SOPAC Technical Report 106. SOPAC (South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission), Suva, Fiji.

  • Daly, M., N. Poutasi, F. Nelson, and J. Kohlhase. 2010. "Reducing the Climate Vulnerability of Coastal Communities in Samoa". Journal of International Development, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 265-282.

  • Jones, P. and J.P. Lea. 2007. "What Has Happened to Urban Reform in the Island Pacific? Some Lessons from Kiribati and Samoa". Pacific Affairs, vol. 80, no. 3, pp. 473-491.

  • Le De, L. 2011. Post-Disaster Reconstruction Strategy: Opportunity or Opportunism? 2009 Tsunami in Samoa as a Case Study. Master of Science in Environmental Management dissertation from the University Of Auckland, New Zealand, full text (2,002 kb in pdf).

    Reported natural disasters have significantly increased over the last fifty years. Because of their high exposure to natural hazards and limited economic capacity, developing countries are recognized by the international aid community to be the most vulnerable to disasters. In 1990, the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction was created to promote ideas of disaster reduction, identifying vulnerability as one of the priorities. The idea that vulnerability reduction is a matter of development is the mainstream discourse of agencies involved in disaster response. Within this general discourse, issues of vulnerability depend on adaptive capacity, technical knowledge, awareness and good governance. For the international aid community, lack of capacity and knowledge can be overcome by means of policy learning transfer from industrialized countries to developing nations. However, there are contrasting views, as some affirm that this approach reflects a top-down, technocratic and Western expert approach that is based on socio-cultural belief and perceptions of 'man' and 'nature'. Others state that most agencies have used vulnerability in the way that best fits their practices, and that this concept is utilized as a justification by developed countries to intervene in the affairs of developing nations. In 2009, a tsunami hit Samoa, resulting in considerable damages and mobilising the international aid community. Through this case study, this research explores how the mainstream use of the concept of vulnerability shapes the post-disaster management. The reconstruction of housing, land transport infrastructure and tourist accommodation and the utilisation of vulnerability reduction and risk mitigation measures are critically observed. Moreover, the role that different agencies play in shaping the decision making process is analysed, and the recovery strategy is explored and criticized. A qualitative research was undertaken, using a range of techniques including semi-structured interviews, scoping and observations on the field, and the analysis of policy documents. Findings show that international aid partners have an influence on shaping the policy carried out by the government of Samoa. The research qualifies the recovery approach as technocentrist and develops the argument that the strategy used has been lacking in considering the socio-cultural aspects inherent to the Samoan society.

  • Lefale, P.F. 2010. "Ua 'afa le Aso Stormy weather today: traditional ecological knowledge of weather and climate. The Samoa experience". Climatic Change, vol. 100, no. 2, pp. 317-335.

  • Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Coastal Infrastructure Management Plans.

  • Nelson, F. 2005. "Enhancing disaster responsiveness by building institutional capabilities". Samoan Environment Forum, vol. 6, pp. 49-53.

  • Nelson, F., G. Roberts, and M. Daly. 2008. "Building Samoa's disaster risk management capacity and capability: A partnership approach". Pp. 49-52 in S. Dannenmann (ed.), Private Sector Activities in Disaster Risk Reduction, UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction), Bonn, Germany.

  • Nelson, F., G. Roberts, and M. Daly. 2008. Reducing the Vulnerability of Coastal Communities in Samoa: A Partnership Approach, full text (40 kb in PDF).

  • Németh, K. and S.J. Cronin. 2009. "Volcanic structures and oral traditions of volcanism of Western Samoa (SW Pacific) and their implications for hazard education". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, vol. 186, pp. 223-237.

  • Read, R. 2006. "Sustainable Natural Resource Use and Economic Development in Small States: the Tuna Fisheries in Fiji and Samoa". Sustainable Development, vol. 14, no.2, pp. 93-103.

  • Samoa National Disaster Management Plan and Emergency Procedures. 1997. Government of Samoa, Apia, Samoa.

  • Samoa's National Disaster Management Plan 2006-2009. 2006. Government of Samoa, Apia, Samoa.

  • Samoa National Tropical Cyclone Plan. 1997. Government of Samoa, Apia, Samoa.

  • Samoa National Tsunami Plan. 2006. Government of Samoa, Apia, Samoa.

  • Samoa Red Cross Society. 2006. A 'Climate of Change' in Samoa. Samoa Red Cross Society, Apia, Samoa.

  • Sutherland, K., B. Smit, V. Wulf, and T. Nakalevu. 2005. "Vulnerability in Samoa". Tiempo, no. 54, pp. 11-15.

  • Watson, E. 2007. Reconceptualising Disasters: Lessons from the Samoan Experience. Master of Arts Dissertation in Geography at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.

  • Apia's harbour

    Apia's harbour.
    (Copyright Ilan Kelman 2004.)


Solomon Islands Solomon Islands' Flag

Some Resources:

Commentary by Ilan Kelman on 5 January 2003:

On 28 December 2002, the islands of Tikopia and Anuta of the Solomon Islands suffered one of the most severe tropical cyclones ever recorded in the area, Category 5 Cyclone Zoe. Tikopia and Anuta are accessible only by boat and are isolated and remote even by small island standards. After the tropical cyclone passed, no communication could be established with the islands.

Rather than governments taking the initiative to discover what had happened to their own people or neighbours, it took a Western (Kiwi) film-maker, Geoff Mackley, to hire a Cessna in Vanuatu. On 1 January 2003, he broke the story of complete devastation, a contaminated water supply, and a few survivors improvising shelter.

The photographs below were taken during the flight over Tikopia and Anuta on 1 January 2003 by Geoff Mackley who kindly gave his permission for the images to be reposted here.

Cyclone Zoe damage, photo courtesy Geoff Mackley

Cyclone Zoe damage, photo courtesy Geoff Mackley

Mackley's trip was the first contact which the outside world had had with these islands since the cyclone had hit, but he could not land due to a lack of an airstrip. Mackley reported "every tree on the island has been blown over or shredded, the island is completely denuded of vegetation, almost every building has been damaged, quite a few remain traditional huts remain intact, while others have been shredded, and the sea has come through some villages and run into the lake which is the islands only water source, this sort of destruction is normally seen only after a strong tornado or volcanic eruption, a number of people, maybe 20 came down to the beach to watch us fly over, my pilot said he counted about 100 people in total, some signalled us with sheets of white plastic, others just sat there". His words were irresponsibly misquoted by some media which reported that everyone was dead and that the islands were flattened by tornadoes.

Movement towards relief operations occurred only after Mackley's story broke, but further delays resulted from the Solomon Islands government’s lack of money to pay for ships, crews, and supplies. Australia and New Zealand donated money, but with concerns about corruption since previous aid to the Solomon Islands had been squandered. Then, logistics issues including weather and seeking a larger vessel further delayed the trip.

In the meantime, an Australian military aircraft flew over the islands. The crew contradicted some of Mackley's statements, in particular not painting such a bleak picture, yet they produced no solid evidence to back up their statements. For example, they suggested that the people were okay because they were building and repairing shelters. After five days, it should be obvious that people will start to reconstruct, irrespective of losses experienced (or, perhaps, not experienced). The building of shelter after a disaster, as with eating and drinking, indicates common sense and a desire to meet individuals' and communities' basic needs.

After Cyclone Zoe, photo courtesy Geoff Mackley

After Cyclone Zoe, photo courtesy Geoff Mackley

Photographs taken during a flight over Tikopia and Anuta on 1 January 2003 by Geoff Mackley who kindly gave his permission for the images to be reposted here.

For The Weekend Australian, Mackley hired a helicopter in Vanuatu and landed on Tikopia Island with some relief supplies on 3 January 2003. All the islanders had survived by sheltering in caves which they regularly use to shelter from cyclones. Their food and water situation, however, was dire. As well, one islander estimated that, due to the destruction, they might not be able to be self-sufficient in food for three years.

From one perspective, the affected islanders did exactly what they should have done and managed to reduce their vulnerability by being aware of the impending storm, warning the community, and acting appropriately and timeously to the warnings. Some commentators had stated that these islanders are entirely self-sufficient and are used to dealing with severe cyclones. Nonetheless, the disinterest displayed by governments in acting swiftly shows a lack of common sense and basic respect in checking that compatriots and neighbours are okay, particularly when it was unclear if sustainability endeavours have been supported or successful in the past. If a film-maker could do it, so could governments.

Concerns were raised about political issues hampering relief efforts. The Solomon Islands' government and the people of Tikopia and Anuta were reported to be from different ethnic groups which has led to tension and non-payment of taxes. As well, the closest inhabited islands to Tikopia and Anuta belong to Vanuatu. The possibly most efficient relief operation would then have been based in a different country, potentially causing loss of face to the Solomon Islands.

Narrower, specific questions also need to be answered. When the Australian military aircraft flew over the islands, why did they not parachute in a basic communication device such as a radio or satellite phone (whichever would work better) along with instructions on how to use it? Even better, why did someone not parachute in with communication devices and some basic supplies? They would not be on the island for more than one week and they could have assessed the situation and reported back immediately.

Rescue services and the military risk their lives to rescue daredevils in races or doing stunts, including incidents in the middle of the sea. Australia paid Pacific islands to take refugees that were not good enough to set foot on Australian soil. Yet they could not do a small, quick, relatively cheap, relatively less risky task for people in need through little fault of their own.

As a precautionary measure, airdrops of food and water could have been made. If these supplies were not needed, then little would have been lost (assuming that the airdrops did not land on something valuable or on people, as has happened in the past). Such airdrops were conducted by the military during the war in Afghanistan at the end of 2001, so the logistics capability exists. Tikopia is clearly within helicopter range, so why did no government bother?

Mackley also compiled a list of stupid statements made on the situation by politicians. These statements, corroborated by other reports, show an astounding lack of interest in establishing facts along with a reprehensible attitude towards human beings suffering disaster. Has the West really become so insular--creating our own societal islands--and so insensitive that we do not even care that such attitudes augment our own social vulnerabilities?

Cyclone Zoe has epitomised the vulnerabilities and isolation of islands. The vulnerabilities were exacerbated, and the isolation was enhanced, by inexcusable human decisions and actions outside the islands affected by the immediate disaster. A new disaster, one of not caring, has emerged. This disaster has far more grievous long-term consequences than the initial event which led to this situation.


Tonga Tonga's Flag

Ship Said to Have Been Sunk During Cyclone Isaac in 1982.

Ship Said to Have Been Sunk During Cyclone Isaac in 1982.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2004.)

Some Resources:
  • Brown, R.P.C. and E. Jimenez. 2008. "Policy Arena: Estimating the Net Effects of Migration and Remittances on Poverty and Inequality: Comparison of Fiji And Tonga". Journal of International Development, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 547-571.

  • Evans, M. 1999. "Is Tonga's Mirab Economy Sustainable? A View From The Village And A View Without It". Pacific Studies, vol. 22, nos. 3-4, pp. 137-166.

  • Evans, M. 2001. Persistence of the Gift: Tongan Tradition in Transnational Context. Wilfrid Laurier University Press, Waterloo, Canada.

  • Jeffery, L. 2010. Niuatoputapu: Story of a Tsunami. Tonga Books, Nuku'alofa, Tonga.

  • Kingdom of Tonga, National Disaster Management Plan and Emergency Procedures. 1997. Government of the Kingdom of Tonga, Nuku'alofa, Tonga.

  • Kroenke, L.W. 1977 (15 September - 29 October). Consultants Report (about a trip to Tonga). For the COP/SOPAC Technical Secretariat. SOPAC, Suva, Fiji.

  • Latukefu, T. 1986. "A Tongan Perspective on the Impact of Disaster Emergency Aid Following Cyclone Isaac", AODRO Newsletter, (Australian Overseas Disaster Response Organisation), vol. 4, no. 3 (September), p. 10-14, full text (553 kb in PDF)

  • Lewis, J. 1978. Mitigation and Preparedness for Natural Disaster in the Kingdom of Tonga. Summary of the Report of a Technical Assistance Assignment under the auspices of the Ministry of Overseas Development, London to the Government of the Kingdom of Tonga. Undertaken in June and July 1978. Report submitted August 1978, full text (68 kb in PDF).

  • Lewis, J. 1979. "Volcano in Tonga". Journal of Administration Overseas, vol. XVIII, no. 2 (April), pp. 116-121, full text (327 kb in PDF).

  • Moeake Tokai and his wife.

    James Lewis writes (2 February 2008): "Town Officer Moeake Tokai and his wife the day after he had recounted to me the story of the 1946 eruption and subsequent evacuation from Niua Fo'ou. Taken at their house on 'Eua, Tonga in 1978".
    (Copyright James Lewis 1978.)

  • Lewis, J. 1981. "Some Perspectives on Natural Disaster Vulnerability in Tonga". Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 145-162.

  • Lewis, J. 1988 (December). Sea Level Rise, Tonga Tuvalu (Kiribati): Report of a rapid field reconnaissance mission, November 1988. Commonwealth Expert Group on Climatic Change and Sea-Level Rise, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, U.K., full text (2,690 kb in PDF).

  • Lewis, J. 1989 (January). "Affordability and participation, need and vulnerability: Post-cyclone rehousing in Tonga". Presented at the Sixth Inter-Schools Conference on Development, March 1989, Centre for Development Planning Studies, the University of Sheffield, full text (376 kb in PDF).

  • Murofushi, T. and N. Hori. 1997. “Human impact on mangrove habitats maintenance against sea-level change: case study of Tongatapu island, the Kingdom of Tonga, South Pacific”. Geographical Reports of Tokyo Metropolitan University 32: 27-42.

  • Nunn, P.D. 2004. "Myths and the Formation of Niue Island, Central South Pacific". The Journal of Pacific History, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 99-108. [This paper includes a significant amount of material on the myths and formation of Tonga.]

  • Nunn, P.D. and E. Wadell. 1992. Implications of Climate Change and Sea Level Rise for the Kingdom of Tonga: Report of a Preparatory Mission. SPREP, Apia, Samoa, full text (4,170 kb in PDF).

  • Orams, M.B. 2001. "From Whale Hunting to Whale Watching in Tonga: A Sustainable Future?". Journal of Sustainable Tourism, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 128-146.

  • Oliver, J. 1986. "The Environment of Disaster Aid: The Socio-Economic Impact of Cyclone Isaac on Tonga, March 1982", AODRO Newsletter, (Australian Overseas Disaster Response Organisation), vol. 4, no. 3 (September), p. 4-10, full text (789 kb in PDF).

  • Pelesikoti, N. 2006. Sustainable Resource and Environmental Management In Tonga: Current Situation, Community Perceptions and A Proposed New Policy Framework. PhD dissertation from Environmental Science, Faculty Of Science, University Of Wollongong, Australia, full text (2,916 kb in pdf).

    The success of Tonga's current and future development depends on sustainable management of its natural resources. However, with increasing population, changing socio-economic aspirations and activities, the quality and quantity of the biophysical environment are declining. This is likely to be exacerbated if the major environmental issues are not addressed immediately. Unsustainable practices in agriculture and fishing, and population related pressures such as waste generated and increasing demand for natural recourses coupled with a specific system of management have been identified as the major causes of environmental degradation. The Government has not been committed to sustainable management of natural resources and to the management of the outputs of resource use. Thus, most of the previous legislation and policies have lacked provisions for environmental consideration in socioeconomic developments. This work aimed to fulfill a number of objectives that contribute to the process of sustainable resource and environmental management in Tonga. These are: 1) assessing the state of the environment; 2) evaluating the barriers to sustainable resource and environmental management; 3) determining the development priorities of the community in Tonga; and 4) formulating of a new national policy framework for sustainable resource and environmental management.

  • Quesada, C. 2005. "Les hommes et leurs volcans: représentations et gestion des phénomènes volcaniques en Polynésie (Hawaii et Royaume de Tonga)". Journal de la Société des Océanistes, vol. 1/2, pp. 120-121.

  • Reardon, G. 1992. "Wind Effects on the Tongan 'Hurricane House'". Chapter 20 in Y. Aysan and I. Davis (eds.), Disasters and the Small Dwelling: Perspectives for the UN IDNDR, James & James, London, U.K.

  • Reardon, G. and K. Eaton. 1986. Article about tropical cyclone Isaac hitting Tonga, AODRO Newsletter, (Australian Overseas Disaster Response Organisation), vol. 4, no. 2 (June), p. 11-13, full text (453 kb in PDF)

  • Rogers, G. 1981. "The Evacuation of Niuafo' ou, an Outlier in the Kingdom of Tonga". The Journal of Pacific History, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 149-163.

  • Spennemann. D.H.R. (1987) “The impact of cyclonic surge on archaeological sites in Tonga”, Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 7: 75-87.

  • Taylor, T. 2010 (May). A Study of Sustainable Social Progress in the Kingdom of Tonga. Masters Thesis, Lund University International Master’s Programme in Environmental Science and Sustainability Studies, Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies.

  • Taylor, P.W. 1995. "Myths, Legends and Volcanic Activity: An Example From Northern Tonga". The Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. 104, no. 3, pp. 323-346.

  • Vea'ila, T.T. 2002. The Environment and Resources of Tonga. Curriculum Development Unit, Nuku'alofa, Tonga.

  • Tongilava, S.L. 1994 (November). Traditional Practices and their Implications for Sustainable Development in Tonga. SPREP (South Pacific Regional Environment Programme) Reports and Studies Series no. 71, full text (3,392 kb in PDF).

  • van der Velde, M., S.R. Green, M. Vanclooster, and B.E. Clothier. 2007. "Sustainable development in small island developing states: Agricultural intensification, economic development, and freshwater resources management on the coral atoll of Tongatapu". Ecological Economics, vol. 61, no. 2-3, pp. 456-468.

  • van der Velde, M., M. Javaux, M. Vanclooster, and B.E. Clothier. 2006. "El Niño-Southern Oscillation determines the salinity of the freshwater lens under a coral atoll in the Pacific Ocean". Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 33, paper L21403.

Environmental Damage, Said to be From Cyclone Heta in 2004.

Environmental Damage, Said to be From Cyclone Heta in 2004.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2004.)


Tuvalu Tuvalu's Flag

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Collapsed roof after a storm on Vaitupu.

Collapsed roof after a storm on Vaitupu.
(Copyright Peter McQuarrie 2004.)


Vanuatu Vanuatu's Flag

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