Pacific

Island Vulnerability explores the challenges which isolated geographies face when dealing with risk and disasters by examining the processes which create, maintain, and could be used to reduce their vulnerability. After some region-wide resources, this page provides information on vulnerability issues on specific Pacific islands:

• Banaba


• Cook Islands


• Federated States of Micronesia


• Fiji


• France's Overseas Territories and Possessions


• Marshall Islands


• Nauru


• New Zealand
  and the associated islands of Cook Islands , Niue , and Tokelau .


• Papua New Guinea (PNG)


• Philippines


• Samoa


• Solomon Islands


• Spratly Islands (South China Sea; no flag)


• Tonga


• Tuvalu


• U.K. Overseas Territories (the Pitcairn Islands is the only Pacific U.K. Overseas Territory).


• Vanuatu

This page provides information specifically related to vulnerability (including risk, disasters, and sustainability), rather than general information such as travel details, country profiles, government websites, or history. The information provided is not intended to be comprehensive, but is indicative of the vulnerabilities which islands experience and how sustainable solutions might be developed and implemented. The publications listed reflect those in the library of Island Vulnerability.

• "A Call for Help". 1997. UNESCO Sources, no. 96, pp. 20-21.

• Bettencourt, S., R. Croad, P. Freeman, J. Hay, R, Jones, P. King, P. Lal, A. Mearns, G. Miller, I. Pswarayi-Riddihough, A. Simpson, N. Teuatabo, U. Trotz, and M. Van Aalst. 2006. Not if but When: Adapting to Natural Hazards in the Pacific Islands Region, a Policy Note, The World Bank, East Asia and Pacific Region, Pacific Islands Country Management Unit, Washington, DC, USA.

• Campbell, J.R., M. Goldsmith, and K. Koshy. 2005. Community Relocation as an Option for Adaptation to the Effects of Climate Change and Climate Variability in Pacific Island Countries (PICs). Final report for APN project 2005-14-NSY-Campbell. Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research, Kobe, Japan.

• Cloin, J. 2007. "Coconut oil as a fuel in the Pacific Islands". Natural Resources Forum, vol. 31, pp. 119-127.

• Dickinson, W. 2009. "Pacific Atoll Living: How Long Already and Until When?". GSA Today, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 4-10.

• FAO. 2008. Climate Change and Food Security in Pacific Island Countries. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Rome, Italy.

• FHMPPI. 2003. Roundtable of Federal Hazard Mitigation Partners in the Pacific Islands (FHMPPI) held in Honolulu, Hawai'i, on March 11 and 12, 2003, Proceedings, Presentations, and Action Plan. CD-ROM, Honolulu, Hawai'i.

• Gilman, E., H. Van Lavieren, J. Ellison, V. Jungblut, L. Wilson, F. Areki, G. Brighouse, J. Bungitak, E. Dus, M. Henry, I. Sauni Jr., M. Kilman, E. Matthews, N. Teariki-Ruatu, S. Tukia, and K. Yuknavage. 2006. Pacific Island Mangroves in a Changing Climate and Rising Sea. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 179. United Nations Environment Programme, Regional Seas Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.

• Govan, H. 2007. People and Reefs in the Pacific – People and Livelihoods. ReefBase Pacific DVD (Ver. 1.0). The WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia.

• Hamnett, M.P. 1995. Natural Disaster Mitigation in Pacific Island Countries: A Policy Guide for Planners & Decision-Makers. SPDRP (South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (RAS/92/360)), UNDP/UNDHA (United Nations Development Programme / United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs), Suva, Fiji.

• Hamnett, M.P. 1995. Natural Disaster Mitigation in Pacific Island Countries: A Policy Guide for Planners & Decision-Makers, Briefing Manual. SPDRP (South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (RAS/92/360)), UNDP/UNDHA (United Nations Development Programme / United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs), Suva, Fiji.

• Hare, G. with assistance from M. Lewis and R. Parkinson. 1987. Hurricanes in the South-West Pacific: A Natural Hazard. Pacific Islanders' Educational Resource Centre, Auckland, New Zealand.

• Hay, J.E., N. Mimura, J. Campbell, S. Fifita, K. Koshy, R.F. McLean, T. Nakalevu, P. Nunn, and N. de Wet. 2003. Climate Variability and Change and Sea-Level Rise in the Pacific Islands Region: A Resource Book for Policy and Decision Makers, Educators and Other Stakeholders. Ministry of the Environment, Japan and SPREP, Apia, Samoa.

• Hay, J. and N. Mimura. 2006. "Supporting climate change vulnerability and adaptation assessments in the Asia-Pacific region: an example of sustainability science". Sustainability Science, vol. 1, pp. 23-35.

• Hay, J.E. and G. Sem. 2000. Vulnerability and Adaptation: Evaluation and Regional Synthesis of National Assessments and Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change. SPREP, Apia, Samoa.

• Lane, R. and R. McNaught. 2009. "Building gendered approaches to adaptation in the Pacific", Gender and Development, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 67-80.

• Lewis, J. 1988 (December). Sea Level Rise, Tonga Tuvalu (Kiribati): Report of a rapid field reconnaissance mission, November 1988. Commonwealth Expert Group on Climatic Change and Sea-Level Rise, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, U.K., full text (2,690 kb in PDF)

• LMMA
  Locally-Managed Marine Area Network
  "A group of practitioners involved in various marine conservation projects around the globe who have joined together to increase the success of our efforts. The LMMA Network is learning network, meaning that participating projects use a common strategy and work together to achieve goals. The Network is interested in learning under what conditions using an LMMA strategy works, doesn’t work, and why."

• Marsella, A.J., A.A. Austin, and B. Grant (eds.). 2005. Social Change and Psychosocial Adaptation in the Pacific Islands: Cultures in Transition. Springer, U.S.A.

• McMichael, A., R. Woodruff, P. Whetton, K. Hennessy, N. Nicholls, S. Hales, A. Woodward, and T. Kjellstrom. 2002. Human Health and Climate Change in Oceania: A Risk Assessment. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, Australia.

• Meehl, G.A. 1996. "Vulnerability of Freshwater Resources to Climate Change in the Tropical Pacific Region". Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, vol. 92, pp. 203-213.

• Mercer, J. 2004 (April). "Reducing vulnerability in South Pacific Small Island Developing States: The Indigenous or Modern Way?" i-Rec Information and Research for Reconstruction Conference, Coventry, U.K., full text (126 kb in PDF)

• Mimura, N. 1999. "Vulnerability of Island Countries in the South Pacific to Sea Level Rise and Climate Change". Climate Research, vol. 12, no. 2-3, pp. 137-143.

• Nunn, P.D. 1988. Future Sea-Level Rise in the Pacific. SSED Working Paper No. 12, SSED (School of Social and Economic Development), University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji, full text (1,753 kb in PDF).

• Nunn, P.D. 1990. "Recent Environmental Changes on Pacific Islands". The Geographical Journal, Vol. 156, No. 2, pp. 125-140.

• Nunn, P.D. 2000. "Environmental Catastrophe in the Pacific Islands Around A.D. 1300". Geoarchaeology, vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 715-740.

• Nunn, P.D. 2001. "Ecological Crises or Marginal Disruptions: the Effects of the First Humans on Pacific Islands". New Zealand Geographer, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 11-20.

• Nunn, P.D. 2001. "On the Convergence of Myth and Reality: Examples from the Pacific Islands". The Geographical Journal, vol. 167, no. 2, pp. 125-138.

• Nunn, P.D. 2003. "Fished Up or Thrown Down: The Geography of Pacific Island Origin Myths". Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 350-364.

• Nunn, P.D. 2007. Understanding Environmental Decision-Making in the Rural Pacific Islands. Final Report for APN CAPaBLE Project: CBA2007-03NSY. Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research, Kobe, Japan.

• Nunn, P.D. and J.M.R. Britton. 2001. "Human-Environment Relationships in the Pacific Islands around AD 1300". Environment and History, vol. 7, pp. 3-22.

• Nunn, P.D., R. Hunter-Anderson, M.T. Carson, F. Thomas, S. Ulm, and M.J. Rowland. 2007. "Times of Plenty, Times of Less: Last-Millennium Societal Disruption in the Pacific Basin". Human Ecology, vol. 35, pp. 385-401.

• O'Collins, M. 1998. "Isolation, Vulnerability, and Governance: Reflections on Poverty Assessments in Papua New Guinea, Fiji And Vanuatu". State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Project Working Paper. Downloaded from http://rspas.anu.edu.au/melanesia/maev.html on 17 July 2004.

• Oliver, J. 1989. "Determining the Future Policies for Disaster Management in the Southwest Pacific". Disasters, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 322-333.

• Pacific At Risk: Our Islands Our Lives, CD from SPREP, Apia, Samoa.

• Pacific Cities Project, CD from SOPAC, Suva, Fiji of data from studies in Apia, Honiara, Nuku'Alofa, Port Vila, and Suva.

• Pararas-Carayannis, G. 2004. "Natural Disasters in Oceania". pp. 193-210 in J.P. Stoltman, J. Lidstone, and L.M. Dechano, International Perspectives on Natural Disasters: Occurrence, Mitigation, and Consequences, Kluwer, London, U.K.

• Pacific Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
  "The water sector under the SOPAC's Community Lifelines Programme (CLP), has a structure consisting of Resources Management, Asset Management and Governance. For the water sector these translate into water resources management (CLP1), which includes rainwater, surface water and groundwater resources assessment, development, management and protection, with a particular emphasis on water resources management in climatic extremes...Sanitation and drinking water services are addressed by the Asset Management component (CLP2) and include drinking-water supply and wastewater disposal asset management...The Governance component (CLP3) pulls together a number of different areas which together attribute to better institutional arrangements in the water sector. These include national level policies, plans and strategies; institutional instruments such as legislation and institutional strengthening; multi-stakeholder national water partnerships; IWRM and catchment level management; community level water governance; awareness raising and education initiatives; and advocacy for community participation and gender."

• PDN
  Pacific Disaster Net
  "A Web Portal and Database System - Virtual Centre of Excellence - for Disaster Risk Management in the Pacific Region. The portal is designed to be the largest and most comprehensive information resource in relation to Disaster Risk Management for the Pacific Island Countries."

• Percival, G.S. 2008. An Assessment of Indigenous Environmental Knowledge (IEK) in the Pacific Region to Improve Resilience to Environmental Change. The Climate Change Research Centre, University of New South Wales, New South Wales, Australia.

• PIANGO
  Pacific Islands Association of Non-Government Organisations
  "PIANGO exists to enable the Pacific extended family of NGOs to more effectively promote and advance the interest and well being of their people. More specifically, PIANGO is a network of Pacific NGOs, existing to facilitate communication; provide a common voice at regional and international forums; and assist NGOs to strengthen and develop Pacific identities, unity, cultures and forms of social action, as well as to improve the well being of the communities they serve.
  PIANGO's goals are to:
  

  1. Facilitate active networking among NGO's at all levels throughout the region.
  
  
  2. Promote and enable access to, sharing and dissemination of information, ideas, experience and resources (including human resources) among NGOs throughout the region.
  
  
  3. Enable NGOs to better understand, fulfil and develop their roles and functions, and strengthen their organisation and program capacities.
  
  
  4. Assist in identifying, monitoring and analysing the needs of people in the Pacific, and ways of increasing the role of the people of the Pacific in their own development, with emphasis on Pacific women and youth.
  
  
  5. Provide a means for a collective voice and action on issues of concern to NGOs and the people they serve.
  
  
  6. Play an active role in promoting a regional Pacific identity and Pacific ways of thinking and responding.
  
  
  7. Cooperate with other networks and organisations within or beyond the region which have similar aims."

• PIFS
  Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat
  "To work in support of Forum Member governments to enhance the economic and social well-being of the people of the South Pacific by fostering cooperation between governments and between international agencies, and by representing the interests of Forum members in ways agreed by the Forum."

• PIPD
  Pacific Islands Development Program (East-West Center)
  "The Pacific Islands Development Program (PIDP) conducts a broad range of activities to enhance the quality of life in the Pacific islands. The founding mission of PIDP, established in 1980, is to assist Pacific islands Leaders in advancing their collective efforts to achieve and sustain equitable social and economic development consistent with the goals of the Pacific islands region's people...PIDP's role as a regional organization has expanded to include five major activity areas:
  

  • Secretariat of the Pacific Islands Conference of Leaders
  
  
  • Secretariat for the United States/Pacific Island Nations Joint Commercial Commission.
  
  
  • Research & Dialogue
  
  
  • Education & Training
  
  
  • Pacific Islands News."
  
  
  For the latter, see their Pacific Islands Report.

• Rongo, T., M. Bush, and R. van Woesik. 2009. "Did ciguatera prompt the late Holocene Polynesian voyages of discovery?" Journal of Biogeography, vol. 36, no. 8, pp. 1423-1432.

• Roper, T. 2009. "Climate Change - A Challenge for the Pacific Nations", full text (510 kb in PDF).

• Roper, T. Presentations on island energy with a Pacific focus:
  

  • 2008. Proactive Partnerships - Enhancing Utility Performance, full text (577 kb in PDF).
  
  
  • 2008. How Promoting Efficiency Helps You and Your Customers, full text (1,210 in PDF).
  
  
  • 2009. Energy Policy: The Way Ahead, full text (383 kb in PDF).
  
  

• Ruddle, K. 1996. "Boundary Definition as a Basic Design Principle of Traditional Fishery Management Systems in the Pacific Islands". Geographische Zeitschrift, vol. 84, issue 2, pp. 94-101.

• SOPAC
  Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission
  "Overall Vision: Natural resources, principally non-living resources, developed in a sustainable manner and vulnerability reduced for the people of the Pacific."
  NZAID states "SOPAC "has also been designated the lead agency for disaster management in the Pacific".
  See their Environmental Vulnerability Index:
  "To develop a robust operational global environmental vulnerability index which provides a relatively quick and inexpensive way of characterising the vulnerability of natural systems (at the level of a region, state, province or island). The common basis on which the index is developed will therefore allow comparisons among countries and through time."



SOPAC's Headquarters.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2005.)

• SOPAC. 2002. Regional Comprehensive Hazard and Risk Management (CHARM): Guidelines for Pacific Island Countries. SOPAC (South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission), Suva, Fiji.

• SPC
  Secretariat of the Pacific Community
  "We strive to develop the technical, professional, scientific, research, planning and management capability of Pacific Islands people to enable them to make informed decisions about their future development and well-being."

• SPREP
  Pacific Regional Environment Programme
  "To promote cooperation in the South Pacific region and to provide assistance in order to protect and improve its environment and to ensure sustainable development for present and future generations."



SPREP's Headquarters.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2004.)

• Tcherkézoff, S. and F. Douaire-Marsaudon (eds.), translated by N. Scott. 2008. The Changing South Pacific: identities and transformations. ANU E-Press, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.

• Te Puna Web Directory
  National Library of New Zealand's Directory to New Zealand and Pacific Island Websites
  "To provide a subject gateway to selected New Zealand and Pacific Island Internet information resources that help libraries, their users, and all New Zealanders meet their professional, educational, cultural and personal information needs."

• UNDRO/SPPO. 1991 (July). Mission Report: Disaster Management and Mitigation Possibilities and Insurance Aspects. UNDRO/SPPO (Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Co-ordinator) South Pacific Programme Office, Suva, Fiji, full text (3,428 kb in PDF).

• UNEP (G.R. South, P. Skelton, J. Veitayaki, A. Resture, C. Carpenter, C. Pratt, and A. Lawedrau). 2004. Pacific Islands, GIWA (Global International Waters Assessment) Regional assessment 62. University of Kalmar, Sweden on behalf of UNEP.

• UNEP and SPREP PROE. 2005. Pacific Environment Outlook. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.

• Cowling, W.E. 2005. "Land, Water and Tourism in Aitutaki, Cook Islands". In Proceedings of the DEVNET 4th Conference, Auckland, New Zealand, 3-5 December 2004. Centre for Development Studies and the Mira Szàszy Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.

• Lewis, J. 1987. "Cook Islands Cyclone". Australian Overseas Disaster Response Organisation Newsletter, vol. 5, no. 1 (April), full text (120 kb in PDF).

• Taylor, A.J.W. 1999. "Value Conflict Arising from a Disaster". The Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, vol. 1999-2, http://www.massey.ac.nz/~trauma/issues/1999-2/taylor.htm

• Henry, R., W. Jeffery, and C. Pam. 2008. Heritage and Climate Change in Micronesia: A Report on a Pilot Study Conducted on Moch Island, Mortlock Islands, Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia January, 2008. Department of Anthropology, Archaeology and Sociology, School of Arts and Social Sciences, James Cook University, full text (4.2 Mb in PDF).

• Schneider, D.M. 1957. "Typhoons on Yap". Human Organization, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 10-15.

• Crittenden, K.S. 2001. "Can This Town Survive? Case Study of a Buried Philippine Town". Natural Hazards Review, vol. 2, issue 2 (May), pp. 72-79.

• England, V. 1993. "Going Home: Aetas are Returning to Their Villages on Mt Pinatubo". Far Eastern Economic Review, vol. 156, 27 May, pp. 34-5.

• England, V. 1993. "Return to Pinatubo". Geographical Magazine, September, pp. 28-31.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2002. "Implications territoriales et ethno-culturelles d’une crise volcanique: Le cas de l’éruption du Mont Pinatubo aux Philippines". Annales de Géographie, no. 627-628, pp. 574-591.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2002. "Territorial Conflicts Following Volcanic Disasters: The 1991 Mt Pinatubo (Philippines) Eruption and the Aetas". Philippine Geographical Journal, vol. 46, nos. 1-4, pp. 3-17.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2002. "The two faces of the Kapampangan territory". K Magazine, vol. 8, p. 38.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2003. "Natural hazards and Cultural Change Among Traditional Philippine Communities: An Alternative Framework of Analysis". Philippine Sociological Review, vol. 51, pp. 163-174.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2003. "Territorial and Ethno-cultural Implications of a Volcanic Crisis: The Case of the Mount Pinatubo Eruption". Alaya: Kapampangan Research Journal, vol. 1 (2003), pp. 73-88.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2005. "Mount Pinatubo and the Kapampangan region before 1991". K Magazine, no. 16, pp. 28-31.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2005. "The changing nature of disaster studies in the Philippines". Philippine Geographical Journal, vol. 49, nos. 1-4, pp. 3-6.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2006. "How traditional societies of the Philippines overcome natural hazards". Alaya: Kapampangan Research Journal, vol. 4, no. 65-84.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2006. "Traditional Societies in the Face of Natural Hazards: The 1991 Mt. Pinatubo Eruption and the Aetas of the Philippines". International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 5-43.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2006. "Was it a cultural disaster? Aeta resilience following the 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 376-399.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2007. "De l'origine des catastrophes: Phénomènes extrêmes ou âpreté du quotidien?" Natures Sciences Sociétés, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 44-47.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2008. "Alternative paradigms of volcanic risk perception: The case of Mt Pinatubo in the Philippines". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, vol. 172, no. 3-4, pp. 315-328.

• Gaillard, J.-C. 2008. "Differentiated adjustment to the 1991 Mt Pinatubo resettlement program among lowland ethnic groups of the Philippines". Australian Journal of Emergency Management, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 31-39.

• Gaillard, J.-C., F.G. Delfin Jr., E.Z. Dizon, V.J. Paz, E.G. Ramos, C.T. Remotigue, K.S. Rodolfo, F. Siringan, J.L.A. Soria, and J.V. Umbal. 2004. "Socio-economic impact of the c. 800-500 yr BP eruption of Mt. Pinatubo (Philippines): Hypotheses from the archaeological and geographical records". Proceedings of the Society of Philippine Archaeologists, vol. 2, pp. 46-58.

• Gaillard, J.-C., F.G. Delfin Jr., E.Z. Dizon, V.J. Paz, E.G. Ramos, C.T. Remotigue, K.S. Rodolfo, F. Siringan, J.L.A. Soria, and J.V. Umbal. 2007. "Planning for the future: A multidisciplinary approach to reconstructing the Buag episode of Mt Pinatubo, Philippines". Pp. 225-252 in J. Grattan and R. Torrence (eds.), Living under the shadow: Cultural impact of volcanic eruptions, One World Archaeology Series, Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California, USA.

• Gaillard, J.-C., F.G. Delfin Jr., E.G. Ramos, V.J. Paz, F.P. Siringan, K.S. Rodolfo, J.L.S. Soria, C.T. Remotigue, J.V. Umbal, E.Z. Dizon. 2003. "Socio-economic impact of the c. 800-500 yr BP. eruption of Mt. Pinatubo (Philippines) Hypotheses from the archaeological and geographical records". Proceedings of the Society of Philippine Archaeologists, vol. 2, pp. 46-58.

• Gaillard, J.-C., F.G. Delfin Jr., E.Z. Dizon, J.A. Larkin, V.J. Paz, E.G. Ramos, C.T. Remotigue, K.S. Rodolfo, F.P. Siringan, J.L.A. Soria, and J.V. Umbal. 2005. "Dimension anthropique de l’éruption du Mont Pinatubo (Philippines) entre 800 et 500 ans BP". L'anthropologie, vol. 109, pp. 249-266.

• Gaillard, J.-C., R. D'Ercole, and F. Leone. 1998. "Cartographie de la vulnérabilité des populations face aux phénomènes volcaniques et aux lahars du Pinatubo (Philippines): Cas du bassin de la rivière Pasig-Potrero (Province de Pampanga)". Pangea, no. 29-30, pp. 5-19.

• Gaillard J.-C., R. D'Ercole, and F. Leone. 2001. "Cartography of population vulnerability to volcanic hazards and lahars of Mt Pinatubo (Philippines): Case of Pasig-Potrero River Basin (province of Pampanga)". Géomorphologie: Relief, processus, environnement, vol. 3/2001, pp. 209-222.

• Gaillard J.-C. and V. Le Masson. 2007. "Traditional societies' response to volcanic hazards: Some implications for community-based disaster recovery". Mountain Research and Development, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 313-317.

• Gaillard, J.-C., C.C. Liamzon, and E.A. Maceda. 2005. "Act of Nature or Act of Man? Tracking the Root Causes of Increasing Disasters in the Philippines". Philippine Geographical Journal, vol. 49, no. 1-4, pp. 45-66.

• Gaillard, J.-C., C.C. Liamzon, and E.A. Maceda. 2007. "Retour sur les causes d'une catastrophe: pourquoi plus de 1,600 morts aux Philippines fin 2004?" Mondes en Développement, vol. 35-2007, 1-n°137, pp. 35-50.

• Gaillard, J.-C., C.C. Liamzon, and E.A. Maceda. 2008. "Catastrophes dites «naturelles» et développement: réflexions sur l'origine des désastres aux Philippines". Revue tiers monde, no. 194 (Avril-Juin), pp. 1-22.

• Gaillard, J.-C., E.A. Maceda, E. Stasiak, I. Le Berre, and M.V.O. Espaldon. 2009. "Sustainable livelihoods and people’s vulnerability in the face of coastal hazards". Journal of Coastal Conservation, vol. 13, pp. 119-129.

• Gaillard, J.-C., E.A. Maceda, E. Stasiak, V. Le Masson, I. Le Berre, and M.V.O. Espaldon. 2008. "Vulnérabilité face aux aléas naturels littoraux et accès aux ressources: Perspectives philippines". Proceedings of the international pluridisciplinary conference The littoral: challenge, dialogue, action, 16-18 January 2008, Lille, France.

• Gaillard, J.-C. and F. Leone. 2000. "Implications territoriales de l’éruption du Mont Pinatubo pour la minorité autochtone aeta Cas des bassins-versants des rivières Pasig et Sacobia (provinces de Pampanga et Tarlac, Philippines)". Cahiers Savoisiens de Géographie, vol. 1 (2000), pp. 53-68.

• Gaillard, J.-C., C.C. Liamzon, J.D. Villanueva. 2007. "'Natural' disaster? A retrospect into the causes of the late-2004 typhoon disaster in Eastern Luzon, Philippines". Environmental Hazards, vol. 7, pp. 257-270.

• Gaillard, J.-C. and J.P. Mallari. 2004. "The peopling of the Philippines: A cartographic synthesis". Hukay: Journal of the University of the Philippines Archaeological Studies Program, vol. 6, pp. 1-27.

• Gaillard, J.-C., M.R.M. Pangilinan, J.R. Cadag, and V. Le Masson. 2008. "Living with increasing floods: Insights from a rural Philippine community". Disaster Prevention and Management, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 383-395.

• Gaillard, J.-C., M.R.M. Pangilinan, J.R. Cadag, V. Le Masson, and P. Texier. 2007. Accroissement des inondations et réponse des populations dans le delta de la rivière Pampanga aux Philippines. Atelier 6: Catastrophes dites «naturelles» et développement en Asie du Sud-Est insulaire, Enseignants, Chercheurs, Experts sur l’Asie et le Pacifique, http://www.reseau-asie.com

• Kelman, I. 1998. Role of Technology in Managing Vulnerability to Natural Disasters, with Case Studies of Volcanic Disasters on Non-Industrialized Islands (including the case study of Mount Pinatubo). Master of Applied Science dissertation supervised by Prof. B. Karney, University of Toronto. Download the entire dissertation (links to another website with the downloads).

• Kelman, I and B. Karney. 1998. "Technology, Volcanoes, and Us". A presentation and abstract at the 23rd Annual Hazards Research and Applications Workshop held in Boulder, Colorado from 12-15 July 1998 by the Natural Hazards Research and Applications Center in Colorado. Read the session summary from the conference.

• Leone, F. and J.-C. Gaillard. 1999. "Analysis of the institutional and social responses to the eruption and the lahars of Mount Pinatubo volcano from 1991 to 1998 (Central Luzon, Philippines)". GeoJournal, vol. 49, pp. 223-238.

• Luna, E.M. 2001. "Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness: The Case of NGOs in the Philippines". Disasters, vol. 25, no. 3 (September), pp. 216-226.

• Newhall, C.G. and R.S. Punongbayan. 1996. Fire and Mud: Eruptions and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Quezon City and University of Washington Press, Seattle and London.

• Seitz, S. 1998. "Coping Strategies in an Ethnic Minority Group: The Aeta of Mount Pinatubo". Disasters, vol. 22, no. 1 (March), pp. 76-90

Infanta, Quezon showing damage following the late-2004 typhoon disaster.
(Copyright Jean-Christophe Gaillard 2004.)

• Carter, R. 1990. Probability and Recurrence of Tropical Cyclones in Western Samoa. SOPAC Technical Report 106. SOPAC (South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission), Suva, Fiji.

• Jones, P. and J.P. Lea. 2008. "What Has Happened to Urban Reform in the Island Pacific? Some Lessons from Kiribati and Samoa". Pacific Affairs, vol. 80, no. 3, pp. 473-491.

• Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Coastal Infrastructure Management Plans.

• National Disaster Management Plan and Emergency Procedures. 1997. Government of Samoa, Apia, Samoa.

• Nelson, F., G. Roberts, and M. Daly. 2008. "Building Samoa's disaster risk management capacity and capability: A partnership approach". Pp. 49-52 in S. Dannenmann (ed.), Private Sector Activities in Disaster Risk Reduction, UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction), Bonn, Germany.

• Nelson, F., G. Roberts, and M. Daly. 2008. Reducing the Vulnerability of Coastal Communities in Samoa: A Partnership Approach, full text (40 kb in PDF).



Apia's harbour.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2004.)

Commentary by Ilan Kelman on 5 January 2003:

On 28 December 2002, the islands of Tikopia and Anuta of the Solomon Islands suffered one of the most severe tropical cyclones ever recorded in the area, Category 5 Cyclone Zoe. Tikopia and Anuta are accessible only by boat and are isolated and remote even by small island standards. After the tropical cyclone passed, no communication could be established with the islands.

Rather than governments taking the initiative to discover what had happened to their own people or neighbours, it took a Western (Kiwi) film-maker, Geoff Mackley, to hire a Cessna in Vanuatu. On 1 January 2003, he broke the story of complete devastation, a contaminated water supply, and a few survivors improvising shelter.

The photographs below were taken during the flight over Tikopia and Anuta on 1 January 2003 by Geoff Mackley who kindly gave his permission for the images to be reposted here.

Mackley's trip was the first contact which the outside world had had with these islands since the cyclone had hit, but he could not land due to a lack of an airstrip. Mackley reported "every tree on the island has been blown over or shredded, the island is completely denuded of vegetation, almost every building has been damaged, quite a few remain traditional huts remain intact, while others have been shredded, and the sea has come through some villages and run into the lake which is the islands only water source, this sort of destruction is normally seen only after a strong tornado or volcanic eruption, a number of people, maybe 20 came down to the beach to watch us fly over, my pilot said he counted about 100 people in total, some signalled us with sheets of white plastic, others just sat there". His words were irresponsibly misquoted by some media which reported that everyone was dead and that the islands were flattened by tornadoes.

Movement towards relief operations occurred only after Mackley's story broke, but further delays resulted from the Solomon Islands government’s lack of money to pay for ships, crews, and supplies. Australia and New Zealand donated money, but with concerns about corruption since previous aid to the Solomon Islands had been squandered. Then, logistics issues including weather and seeking a larger vessel further delayed the trip.

In the meantime, an Australian military aircraft flew over the islands. The crew contradicted some of Mackley's statements, in particular not painting such a bleak picture, yet they produced no solid evidence to back up their statements. For example, they suggested that the people were okay because they were building and repairing shelters. After five days, it should be obvious that people will start to reconstruct, irrespective of losses experienced (or, perhaps, not experienced). The building of shelter after a disaster, as with eating and drinking, indicates common sense and a desire to meet individuals' and communities' basic needs.

Photographs taken during a flight over Tikopia and Anuta on 1 January 2003 by Geoff Mackley who kindly gave his permission for the images to be reposted here.

For The Weekend Australian, Mackley hired a helicopter in Vanuatu and landed on Tikopia Island with some relief supplies on 3 January 2003. All the islanders had survived by sheltering in caves which they regularly use to shelter from cyclones. Their food and water situation, however, was dire. As well, one islander estimated that, due to the destruction, they might not be able to be self-sufficient in food for three years.

From one perspective, the affected islanders did exactly what they should have done and managed to reduce their vulnerability by being aware of the impending storm, warning the community, and acting appropriately and timeously to the warnings. Some commentators had stated that these islanders are entirely self-sufficient and are used to dealing with severe cyclones. Nonetheless, the disinterest displayed by governments in acting swiftly shows a lack of common sense and basic respect in checking that compatriots and neighbours are okay, particularly when it was unclear if sustainability endeavours have been supported or successful in the past. If a film-maker could do it, so could governments.

Concerns were raised about political issues hampering relief efforts. The Solomon Islands' government and the people of Tikopia and Anuta were reported to be from different ethnic groups which has led to tension and non-payment of taxes. As well, the closest inhabited islands to Tikopia and Anuta belong to Vanuatu. The possibly most efficient relief operation would then have been based in a different country, potentially causing loss of face to the Solomon Islands.

Narrower, specific questions also need to be answered. When the Australian military aircraft flew over the islands, why did they not parachute in a basic communication device such as a radio or satellite phone (whichever would work better) along with instructions on how to use it? Even better, why did someone not parachute in with communication devices and some basic supplies? They would not be on the island for more than one week and they could have assessed the situation and reported back immediately.

Rescue services and the military risk their lives to rescue daredevils in races or doing stunts, including incidents in the middle of the sea. Australia paid Pacific islands to take refugees that were not good enough to set foot on Australian soil. Yet they could not do a small, quick, relatively cheap, relatively less risky task for people in need through little fault of their own.

As a precautionary measure, airdrops of food and water could have been made. If these supplies were not needed, then little would have been lost (assuming that the airdrops did not land on something valuable or on people, as has happened in the past). Such airdrops were conducted by the military during the war in Afghanistan at the end of 2001, so the logistics capability exists. Tikopia is clearly within helicopter range, so why did no government bother?

Mackley also compiled a list of stupid statements made on the situation by politicians. These statements, corroborated by other reports, show an astounding lack of interest in establishing facts along with a reprehensible attitude towards human beings suffering disaster. Has the West really become so insular--creating our own societal islands--and so insensitive that we do not even care that such attitudes augment our own social vulnerabilities?

Cyclone Zoe has epitomised the vulnerabilities and isolation of islands. The vulnerabilities were exacerbated, and the isolation was enhanced, by inexcusable human decisions and actions outside the islands affected by the immediate disaster. A new disaster, one of not caring, has emerged. This disaster has far more grievous long-term consequences than the initial event which led to this situation.

• Kingdom of Tonga, National Disaster Management Plan and Emergency Procedures. 1997. Government of the Kingdom of Tonga, Nuku'alofa, Tonga.

• Lewis, J. 1978. Mitigation and Preparedness for Natural Disaster in the Kingdom of Tonga. Summary of the Report of a Technical Assistance Assignment under the auspices of the Ministry of Overseas Development, London to the Government of the Kingdom of Tonga. Undertaken in June and July 1978. Report submitted August 1978, full text (68 kb in PDF).

• Lewis, J. 1979. "Volcano in Tonga". Journal of Administration Overseas, vol. XVIII, no. 2 (April), pp. 116-121, full text (327 kb in PDF).



James Lewis writes (2 February 2008): "Town Officer Moeake Tokai and his wife the day after he had recounted to me the story of the 1946 eruption and subsequent evacuation from Niua Fo'ou. Taken at their house on 'Eua, Tonga in 1978".
(Copyright James Lewis 1978.)

• Lewis, J. 1981. "Some Perspectives on Natural Disaster Vulnerability in Tonga". Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 145-162.

• Nunn, P.D. 2004. "Myths and the Formation of Niue Island, Central South Pacific". The Journal of Pacific History, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 99-108. [This paper includes a significant amount of material on the myths and formation of Tonga.]

• Pelesikoti, N. 2006. Sustainable Resource and Environmental Management In Tonga: Current Situation, Community Perceptions and A Proposed New Policy Framework. PhD dissertation from Environmental Science, Faculty Of Science, University Of Wollongong, Australia, download the full text (2.9 MB in pdf).

  The success of Tonga's current and future development depends on sustainable management of its natural resources. However, with increasing population, changing socio-economic aspirations and activities, the quality and quantity of the biophysical environment are declining. This is likely to be exacerbated if the major environmental issues are not addressed immediately. Unsustainable practices in agriculture and fishing, and population related pressures such as waste generated and increasing demand for natural recourses coupled with a specific system of management have been identified as the major causes of environmental degradation. The Government has not been committed to sustainable management of natural resources and to the management of the outputs of resource use. Thus, most of the previous legislation and policies have lacked provisions for environmental consideration in socioeconomic developments. This work aimed to fulfill a number of objectives that contribute to the process of sustainable resource and environmental management in Tonga. These are: 1) assessing the state of the environment; 2) evaluating the barriers to sustainable resource and environmental management; 3) determining the development priorities of the community in Tonga; and 4) formulating of a new national policy framework for sustainable resource and environmental management.

• Quesada, C. 2005. "Les hommes et leurs volcans: représentations et gestion des phénomènes volcaniques en Polynésie (Hawaii et Royaume de Tonga)". Journal de la Société des Océanistes, vol. 1/2, pp. 120-121.

• Reardon, G. 1992. "Wind Effects on the Tongan 'Hurricane House'". Chapter 20 in Y. Aysan and I. Davis (eds.), Disasters and the Small Dwelling: Perspectives for the UN IDNDR, James & James, London, U.K.

• Rogers, G. 1981. "The Evacuation of Niuafo' ou, an Outlier in the Kingdom of Tonga". The Journal of Pacific History, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 149-163.

• Tongilava, S.L. 1994 (November). Traditional Practices and their Implications for Sustainable Development in Tonga. SPREP (South Pacific Regional Environment Programme) Reports and Studies Series no. 71, full text (3,392 kb in PDF).

• van der Velde, M., S.R. Green, M. Vanclooster, and B.E. Clothier. 2007. "Sustainable development in small island developing states: Agricultural intensification, economic development, and freshwater resources management on the coral atoll of Tongatapu". Ecological Economics, vol. 61, pp. 456–468.

• van der Velde, M., M. Javaux, M. Vanclooster, and B.E. Clothier. 2006. "El Niño-Southern Oscillation determines the salinity of the freshwater lens under a coral atoll in the Pacific Ocean". Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 33, paper L21403.

Environmental Damage, Said to be From Cyclone Heta in 2004.
(Copyright Ilan Kelman 2004.)

• Campbell, J.R. 1990. "Disasters and Development in Historical Context: Tropical Cyclone Response in the Banks Islands, Northern Vanuatu". International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 401-424.

• Cronin, S.J., D.R. Gaylord, D. Charley, B.V. Alloway, S. Wallez, and J.W. Esau. 2004. "Participatory methods of incorporating scientific with traditional knowledge for volcanic hazard management on Ambae Island, Vanuatu". Bulletin of Volcanology, vol. 66, pp. 652-668.

• Méheux, K. and E. Parker. 2006. "Tourist sector perceptions of natural hazards in Vanuatu and the implications for a small island developing state". Tourism Management, vol. 27, pp. 69-85.

• Miller, D. 2009. Keeping Sediment Off The Reef: A project using vetiver grass to trap sediment and re-establish indigenous forest - Aneityum Island, Vanuatu, full text (3,314 kb in PDF)

• Pacific Disaster Center. 2003. Risk and Vulnerability Assessment for Selected Building Types on the Island of Efate, Vanuatu, Pacific Disaster Center Publication, July.

• Raos, A.M. and J. McPhie. 2003. "The Submarine Record of a Large-Scale Explosive Eruption in the Vanuatu Arc: ~1 Ma Efate Pumice Formation". Geophysical Monograph - American Geophysical Union, vol. 140, pp. 273-284.

• Regnier, M., S. Morris, A. Shapira, and G.G. Shorten. 2000. "Microzonation of the expected seismic site effects across Port Vila, Vanuatu", Journal of Earthquake Engineering, vol. 4, no. 2, pp 215-231.

• Shorten, G.G., S. Goosby, K. Granger, K. Lindsay, P. Naidu, S. Oliver, K. Stewart, V. Titov, and G. Walker. 2003 (December 22). Developing Risk-Management Options for DIsasters in the Pacific Region. SOPAC Joint Contribution Report 147, SOPAC, Suva, Fiji.

• Shorten, G.G. and S. Schmall. 2003 (May). Disaster Risk Management in Marginal Communities of Port Vila, Vanuatu: Project Summary. SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 507, SOPAC, Suva, Fiji, full text (4,531 kb in PDF).

• Shorten, G.G., A. Shapira, M. Regnier, G. Teakle, L. Biukoto, M. Swamy, and L. Vuetibau. 1999. "Application of the uniform-hazard site-specific acceleration response spectrum in Pacific cities", pp. 69-74 in Proceedings of the Australian Disaster Conference, Emergency Management Australia, Canberra, Australia.

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